{"id":228604,"date":"2025-09-19T17:46:01","date_gmt":"2025-09-19T12:16:01","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/?p=228604"},"modified":"2025-09-19T17:46:07","modified_gmt":"2025-09-19T12:16:07","slug":"local-governments-in-india","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/local-governments-in-india\/","title":{"rendered":"Local Governments in India: PRIs, ULBs, Functions &amp; Challenges"},"content":{"rendered":"<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_77 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-grey ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\" style=\"cursor:inherit\">Table of content<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #999;color:#999\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #999;color:#999\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 eztoc-toggle-hide-by-default' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/local-governments-in-india\/#Local_Governments_in_India\" >Local Governments in India<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/local-governments-in-india\/#Historical_Background\" >Historical Background<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/local-governments-in-india\/#Panchayati_Raj_Institutions_PRIs_%E2%80%93_Rural_Local_Government\" >Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) \u2013 Rural Local Government<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/local-governments-in-india\/#Urban_Local_Governments\" >Urban Local Governments<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/local-governments-in-india\/#Types_of_Urban_Bodies\" >Types of Urban Bodies<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/local-governments-in-india\/#Finance_of_Local_Governments\" >Finance of Local Governments<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/local-governments-in-india\/#Challenges_in_Local_Governance\" >Challenges in Local Governance<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/local-governments-in-india\/#Significance_of_Local_Governments_in_India\" >Significance of Local Governments in India<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/local-governments-in-india\/#FAQs_on_Local_Governments_in_India\" >FAQs on Local Governments in India<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n\n<p>Local governments are the foundation of India\u2019s democratic framework at the grassroots level. They function as the third tier of governance after the Union and State governments, ensuring that development, justice, and welfare reach the common people directly. By bringing decision-making closer to citizens, local bodies not only improve service delivery but also strengthen participatory democracy. Their constitutional recognition through the 73rd and 74th Amendments of 1992 marked a major step in decentralization and empowerment of people.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-local-governments-in-india\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Local_Governments_in_India\"><\/span>Local Governments in India<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>India\u2019s democratic framework is structured into three levels of governance\u2014Union, State, and Local. Local governments, being the third tier, function at the grassroots level and are directly responsible for meeting the immediate needs of citizens. With constitutional recognition through the 73rd and 74th Amendments (1992), they form the backbone of participatory democracy and decentralized planning.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-buttons is-content-justification-center is-layout-flex wp-container-core-buttons-is-layout-16018d1d wp-block-buttons-is-layout-flex\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-button\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link wp-element-button\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/upsc-epfo-apfc\/?ref=conttm-aib\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">enrol in UPSC EPFO APFC Online coaching<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-historical-background\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Historical_Background\"><\/span>Historical Background<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>The concept of local governance in India has deep historical roots. In ancient India, village assemblies like the <em>Sabha<\/em> and <em>Samiti<\/em> were vital institutions for administration and justice. The <em>Gramini<\/em> was a key village functionary in the Vedic period. During the medieval era, centralization weakened local autonomy, but village communities managed to preserve their existence.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In the British period, several reforms shaped local governance:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Mayo\u2019s Resolution (1870):<\/strong> Gave importance to local institutions.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Lord Ripon\u2019s Resolution (1882):<\/strong> Regarded as the \u201cMagna Carta\u201d of local self-government, emphasized democratic participation.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Royal Commission on Decentralization (1907):<\/strong> Advocated elected local bodies.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919):<\/strong> Introduced dyarchy and made local government a provincial subject.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>These initiatives laid the foundation for modern local government institutions in independent India.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-panchayati-raj-institutions-pris-rural-local-government\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Panchayati_Raj_Institutions_PRIs_%E2%80%93_Rural_Local_Government\"><\/span>Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) \u2013 Rural Local Government<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 gave constitutional status to PRIs, introducing a three-tier system across states:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Gram Panchayat (village level)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Mandal\/Block Panchayat (intermediate level)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Zila Parishad (district level)<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>The amendment also mandated the establishment of Gram Sabhas as forums for direct democracy, reservation of seats for women and marginalized groups, and periodic elections conducted by State Election Commissions. The Eleventh Schedule assigned 29 subjects to Panchayats, including agriculture, irrigation, health, sanitation, and education.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Committees like the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957), Ashok Mehta Committee (1977), and L.M. Singhvi Committee (1986) played a crucial role in shaping democratic decentralization. Later, the PESA Act (1996) extended these provisions to Scheduled Areas, empowering tribal Gram Sabhas with control over forests, land, and natural resources.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-buttons is-content-justification-center is-layout-flex wp-container-core-buttons-is-layout-16018d1d wp-block-buttons-is-layout-flex\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-button\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link wp-element-button\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/upsc-epfo-eo\/?ref=conttm-aib&amp;next=https:\/\/u1.oliveboard.in\/exams\/?c=epfoeo&amp;i=epfoeo#mtestdata\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">attempt UPSC EPFO APFC + EO\/AO Mock tests<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-urban-local-governments\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Urban_Local_Governments\"><\/span>Urban Local Governments<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 provided constitutional recognition to urban local bodies, strengthening self-governance in towns and cities. It created a three-tier system of:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Nagar Panchayats<\/strong> \u2013 for transitional areas moving from rural to urban.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Municipal Councils (Nagar Palikas)<\/strong> \u2013 for smaller urban towns.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Municipal Corporations (Nagar Nigams)<\/strong> \u2013 for large cities with higher populations.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>The Twelfth Schedule listed 18 functions for municipalities, including urban planning, land use regulation, water supply, solid waste management, urban forestry, public health, and slum improvement. Urban governance is further supported by District Planning Committees (Art. 243ZD) and Metropolitan Planning Committees (Art. 243ZE), which consolidate development plans at the district and metropolitan levels.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-types-of-urban-bodies\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Types_of_Urban_Bodies\"><\/span>Types of Urban Bodies<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Urban governance in India includes different types of institutions based on size, function, and administrative needs:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Municipal Corporations:<\/strong> For large metropolitan cities; headed by a Mayor, assisted by a Commissioner (usually an IAS officer).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Municipal Councils:<\/strong> For smaller towns, with similar functions but limited financial and administrative powers.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Nagar Panchayats:<\/strong> For transitional areas moving from rural to urban.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Notified Area Committees &amp; Town Area Committees:<\/strong> Created by State notifications for specific areas; often fully nominated.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Cantonment Boards:<\/strong> Established under the Cantonments Act (2006), functioning under the Ministry of Defence.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Townships &amp; Port Trusts:<\/strong> Set up by PSUs or Parliament for providing civic amenities in industrial or port areas.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Special Purpose Agencies:<\/strong> Function-based organizations (e.g., urban transport authorities, water supply boards) that operate independently of municipalities.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-buttons is-content-justification-center is-layout-flex wp-container-core-buttons-is-layout-16018d1d wp-block-buttons-is-layout-flex\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-button\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link has-text-align-center wp-element-button\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/upsc-epfo-eo\/?ref=conttm-aib&amp;next=https:\/\/u1.oliveboard.in\/exams\/lessons\/obnotesplus\/?c=epfoeon&amp;testid=\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">get UPSC EPFO Notes for exam preparation<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-finance-of-local-governments\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Finance_of_Local_Governments\"><\/span>Finance of Local Governments<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Local governments need financial resources to carry out their constitutional responsibilities effectively. However, financial devolution remains one of the weakest aspects of decentralization in India.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs):<\/strong> Article 243G empowers Panchayats to prepare plans for economic development and social justice. Article 243H allows State Legislatures to authorize Panchayats to levy, collect, and appropriate taxes, duties, tolls, and fees. They can also receive assigned revenues and grants-in-aid from the State\u2019s Consolidated Fund. State Finance Commissions (SFCs) are set up every five years to recommend revenue-sharing between States and PRIs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Urban Local Bodies (ULBs):<\/strong> Empowered to collect taxes like property tax, professional tax, and user charges. They receive grants and shared taxes from the State government. Financial health is reviewed by SFCs. However, the introduction of GST has limited their tax domain by subsuming several local taxes, making them more dependent on State and Central transfers.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Challenges in Local Finances:<\/strong> Narrow tax base and inefficient tax collection, overdependence on higher governments for funds, poor implementation of SFC recommendations, limited financial autonomy to design and raise revenue sources, and weak capacity to mobilize resources in both rural and urban bodies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Also Read:&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/centre-state-relations-in-india\/?ref=conttm-aib\"><strong>Centre-State Relations in India<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-challenges-in-local-governance\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Challenges_in_Local_Governance\"><\/span>Challenges in Local Governance<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Despite constitutional backing, local governments face persistent hurdles. States often hesitate to transfer the \u201c3 Fs\u201d \u2013 Funds, Functions, and Functionaries. Financial and administrative dependence hampers autonomy. Many Panchayats lack power to recruit staff or plan independently. Gram Sabhas are often sidelined, reducing citizen participation. Urban bodies struggle with trained manpower, technology, and infrastructure. Excessive control from higher authorities reduces effectiveness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-significance-of-local-governments-in-india\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Significance_of_Local_Governments_in_India\"><\/span>Significance of Local Governments in India<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Despite challenges, local governments remain critical pillars of Indian democracy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Grassroots Democracy:<\/strong> Gram Sabhas and Ward Committees promote direct participation in governance.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Women &amp; Social Justice:<\/strong> Reservation ensures greater representation of women, SCs, STs, and OBCs in decision-making.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Developmental Role:<\/strong> Handle crucial functions like sanitation, primary education, health, water supply, and rural\/urban infrastructure.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Inclusive Growth:<\/strong> Empower marginalized communities, especially in Scheduled Areas through PESA, by giving them control over resources and local governance.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Also Read:\u00a0<strong><a href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/constitutional-non-constitutional-bodies\/?ref=conttm-aib\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Constitutional &amp; Non-Constitutional Bodies in India<\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-faqs-on-local-governments-in-india\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"FAQs_on_Local_Governments_in_India\"><\/span>FAQs on Local Governments in India<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>1. What is the role of local government in India?<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong> Local governments act as the third tier of governance, ensuring delivery of basic services, promoting participation, and strengthening grassroots democracy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>2. Which constitutional amendments gave recognition to local governments?<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong> The 73rd Amendment (1992) gave constitutional status to Panchayati Raj Institutions, and the 74th Amendment (1992) did the same for Urban Local Bodies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>3. What are the three levels of Panchayati Raj Institutions?<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong> Gram Panchayat at the village level, Block\/Mandal Panchayat at the intermediate level, and Zila Parishad at the district level.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>4. What is the role of Gram Sabha?<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong> Gram Sabha is a body of all adult voters in a village that ensures direct democracy by discussing and approving local development plans and decisions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>5. How are urban local bodies classified?<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong> They are classified as Nagar Panchayats for transitional areas, Municipal Councils for smaller towns, and Municipal Corporations for larger cities.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>6. What functions do municipalities perform?<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong> Municipalities handle urban planning, water supply, sanitation, public health, waste management, and slum improvement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>7. What is the role of State Finance Commissions?<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong> SFCs review the financial position of local bodies every five years and recommend how revenues should be shared between States and local governments.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>8. How does the PESA Act empower tribal areas?<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong> The Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 gives Gram Sabhas in tribal areas power over land, forests, markets, and natural resources.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>9. What are the major challenges faced by local governments?<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong> Challenges include weak devolution of powers, dependence on State governments, financial constraints, weak Gram Sabhas, and political interference.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>10. Why are local governments important for democracy?<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong> They promote inclusive governance, empower marginalized groups, strengthen democratic participation, and improve delivery of services at the grassroots level.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-latest-posts__list is-grid columns-3 wp-block-latest-posts\"><li><a class=\"wp-block-latest-posts__post-title\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/upsc-epfo-exam-analysis-2025\/\">UPSC EPFO Exam Analysis 2025, 30th November, Difficulty Level &amp; Good Attempts<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"wp-block-latest-posts__post-title\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/upsc-epfo-admit-card\/\">UPSC EPFO Admit Card 2025 Out, APFC &amp; EO\/AO Hall Ticket Link<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"wp-block-latest-posts__post-title\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/industrial-relations-and-labour-laws-notes-upsc-epfo-eo\/\">Industrial Relations &#038; Labour Laws Notes for UPSC EPFO 2025, Free PDF<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"wp-block-latest-posts__post-title\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/upsc-epfo-air-1s-journey-strategy\/\">UPSC EPFO Topper&#8217;s Strategy, AIR 1&#8217;s Journery and Success Story<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"wp-block-latest-posts__post-title\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/upsc-epfo-posting\/\">UPSC EPFO Posting for EO\/AO &amp; APFC: Transfers &amp; Growth<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"wp-block-latest-posts__post-title\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/upsc-epfo-exam-date-2025-out\/\">UPSC EPFO Exam Date 2025, Admit Card Link for 230 Posts<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Local governments are the foundation of India\u2019s democratic framework at the grassroots level. They function as the third tier of<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":60,"featured_media":228610,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1,10210,62,10321],"tags":[18019,11528],"class_list":["post-228604","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-articles","category-epfo","category-government-exams","category-upsc-epfo","tag-local-governments-in-india","tag-upsc-epfo","generate-columns","tablet-grid-50","mobile-grid-100","grid-parent","grid-50"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v26.6 (Yoast SEO v26.6) - https:\/\/yoast.com\/wordpress\/plugins\/seo\/ -->\n<title>Local Governments in India: PRIs, ULBs, Functions &amp; Challenges<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Learn about local governments in India, their history, structure, finance, challenges, and significance. Covers PRIs, ULBs &amp; constitutional provisions.\" \/>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oliveboard.in\/blog\/local-governments-in-india\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Local Governments in India: PRIs, ULBs, Functions &amp; Challenges\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Local governments are the foundation of India\u2019s democratic framework at the grassroots level. 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