Indian Languages & Literature: India’s rich cultural identity is deeply linked with its languages and literature. With thousands of spoken dialects and a literary tradition stretching back over three millennia, India has preserved philosophy, religion, and social reform through writings. From Vedic hymns to modern novels, languages and literature show how Indian society has evolved. For UPSC EPFO aspirants, this topic is important because it combines history, culture, and constitutional aspects in one area.
Linguistic Families in India
Languages in India belong to multiple families, each with its own history and spread. This diversity explains why India has so many regional identities and literary styles. The largest group is Indo-Aryan, followed by Dravidian, but tribal and Himalayan languages also form a significant share.
| Language Family | Features | Examples |
| Indo-Aryan | Spoken by majority; origin in Sanskrit | Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi, Odia, Urdu |
| Dravidian | Ancient, concentrated in South India | Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Tulu |
| Austroasiatic | Tribal languages of Central & NE India | Santhali, Mundari, Khasi |
| Sino-Tibetan | Languages of NE India & Himalayas | Bodo, Manipuri, Naga dialects, Ladakhi |
| Others | Regional tribal languages | Gondi, Oraon, Nicobarese |
Classical Languages of India
Some Indian languages are given “Classical” status because of their antiquity and contribution to literature. These languages have independent traditions, not borrowed from others, and show continuity over centuries. For exams, knowing the six recognized classical languages and their year of declaration is crucial.
| Classical Languages | Year of Recognition |
| Tamil | 2004 |
| Sanskrit | 2005 |
| Kannada | 2008 |
| Telugu | 2008 |
| Malayalam | 2013 |
| Odia | 2014 |
Ancient Indian Scripts
Scripts were essential in preserving texts and passing knowledge across generations. While the Indus script is still undeciphered, most Indian scripts later evolved from Brahmi. These scripts shaped not just literature but also regional identities.
| Script | Features | Usage |
| Indus | Undeciphered symbols | Indus Valley inscriptions |
| Brahmi | Left to right; earliest deciphered | Ashokan edicts |
| Kharosthi | Right to left | Gandhara region |
| Gupta | Developed from Brahmi | Basis of Nagari |
| Grantha | Tamil Nadu, for Sanskrit texts | Basis of Malayalam |
| Sarada | Kashmir script | Sanskrit & Kashmiri |
| Gurmukhi | Standardized by Guru Angad | Sikh scriptures |
| Devanagari | Widely used, standardized | Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Nepali |
| Urdu Script | Derived from Persian | Urdu, Punjabi (Shahmukhi) |
Vedic Literature
The Vedas are the earliest literary works of India. They are collections of hymns, rituals, and philosophical thoughts that became the foundation of Hindu religion. Composed in Sanskrit, they also provide insight into society, economy, and politics of the time.
- Rigveda – hymns dedicated to deities.
- Samaveda – chants used in sacrifices.
- Yajurveda – formulas for rituals.
- Atharvaveda – charms, spells, and daily concerns.
- Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads – texts explaining rituals and philosophy.
Epic Literature
Indian epics are among the longest and most influential works of world literature. They blend mythology, history, and ethics while shaping Indian culture for centuries. Their stories have been retold in multiple languages and continue to influence art, drama, and religion.
- Ramayana – story of Rama, attributed to Valmiki.
- Mahabharata – attributed to Vyasa, includes the Bhagavad Gita, and is the world’s longest epic.
Sangam Literature
Sangam literature of Tamil Nadu is one of the earliest secular literatures of India. Composed by poets in assemblies called Sangams, it describes everyday life, trade, love, and warfare of early Tamil society. Its realism makes it unique compared to other ancient texts.
- Themes divided into Akam (love/inner life) and Puram (war/public life).
- Important works include Tolkappiyam (grammar) and the Five Epics like Silappatikaram and Manimekalai.
Sanskrit Literature
Sanskrit remained the language of learning and culture for centuries. It produced works in almost every field, including religion, philosophy, science, and drama. Writers like Kalidasa created masterpieces that are still celebrated as world classics.
- Kalidasa – Abhigyan Shakuntalam, Meghaduta.
- Kautilya – Arthashastra on politics and economics.
- Kalhana – Rajatarangini, a historical chronicle of Kashmir.
- Medical texts – Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita.
Literature in Pali and Prakrit
Unlike Sanskrit, which was elite, Pali and Prakrit were closer to common speech. They became the medium of Buddhist and Jain teachings, making religion accessible to the masses.
- Pali: Tripitaka (Vinaya, Sutta, Abhidhamma), Jataka tales.
- Prakrit: Jain Agamas, Kalpa Sutra, Samayasara.
Bhakti and Sufi Literature
From the 12th century, Bhakti and Sufi movements spread across India. Their literature, composed in local languages, carried messages of devotion, social equality, and unity. They challenged caste and orthodoxy, making them powerful social reform movements.
- Bhakti saints: Kabir, Tulsidas, Meera Bai, Surdas, Guru Nanak.
- Sufi poets: Amir Khusrau, Baba Farid, Bulleh Shah.
Persian and Urdu Literature
The Delhi Sultanate and Mughal rule enriched Persian and Urdu writings. Court chronicles, poetry, and ghazals became popular, blending Indian and Persian traditions. Urdu in particular grew as a language of both culture and common people.
- Persian works: Abul Fazl’s Akbarnama, Jahangir’s Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri.
- Urdu works: Jayasi’s Padmavat, Ghalib’s ghazals, Iqbal’s poetry.
Dravidian Literature
South Indian languages developed their own literary traditions independent of Sanskrit. They produced both devotional and secular works and shaped the cultural identity of the region.
- Tamil – Sangam texts, Bhakti hymns of Nayanmars and Alvars.
- Telugu – Nannaya, Krishnadevaraya’s Ashtadiggajas.
- Kannada – Pampa, Ranna, Basavanna’s Vachanas.
- Malayalam – Ramacharitam, works of Ezhuthachan.
Modern Indian Literature
Colonialism, printing, and rising nationalism gave birth to modern Indian literature. Writers used their works to inspire reform and independence, while also experimenting with new forms of prose and poetry.
- Bengali – Bankim Chandra (Anandamath), Tagore (Gitanjali).
- Hindi – Bharatendu Harishchandra, Premchand (Godan).
- Marathi – Tukaram, Lokmanya Tilak (Kesari writings).
- Assamese – Shankardev’s works.
- Punjabi – Waris Shah’s Heer-Ranjha, Guru Granth Sahib.
- Indian English – R.K. Narayan, Mulk Raj Anand, later Arundhati Roy.
UNESCO Recognition of Indian Literature
Some Indian manuscripts and traditions have received UNESCO recognition, underlining their global importance. This makes them high-value facts for exams.
- Rigveda manuscripts – Memory of the World Register.
- Vedic chanting – Intangible Cultural Heritage.
- Ramcharitmanas and Mahabharata manuscripts preserved in Indian archives.
- Tamil Sangam texts acknowledged internationally for antiquity.
Role of Literature in Indian Society
Literature has always been more than storytelling in India. In ancient times, it preserved philosophy and rituals. In medieval times, Bhakti and Sufi texts united people. In colonial times, literature spread reform and nationalism. Today, Indian writing continues to engage with identity, equality, and modern global concerns while staying rooted in tradition.
Notable Literary Works
Indian literature evolved in stages — from the sacred Vedas and epics of the ancient period, to devotional and courtly works of the medieval age, and finally to reformist and nationalist writings during colonial rule. These texts not only enriched culture but also shaped religious practices, political thought, and social reforms.
Ancient Works
Ancient literature was dominated by Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, and Tamil. These works conveyed religious philosophy, ethics, grammar, and stories of gods and heroes.
| Work | Author | Language/Period | Significance |
| Rigveda | Unknown sages | Vedic Sanskrit | Oldest hymns, foundation of Indian culture |
| Upanishads | Various sages | Sanskrit (Vedic Age) | Philosophical concepts like Brahman, Atman |
| Ramayana | Valmiki | Sanskrit (Epic Age) | Ideal of dharma through Rama’s life |
| Mahabharata | Vyasa | Sanskrit (Epic Age) | Longest epic, includes Bhagavad Gita |
| Arthashastra | Kautilya (Chanakya) | Sanskrit (Maurya Age) | Politics, statecraft, and economics |
| Charaka Samhita | Charaka | Sanskrit | Classical text on medicine |
| Silappatikaram | Ilango Adigal | Tamil (Sangam Age) | One of Tamil’s Five Great Epics |
| Tolkappiyam | Tolkappiyar | Tamil | Early grammar and poetics |
| Manimekalai | Sattanar | Tamil | Epic on Buddhist themes |
| Rajatarangini | Kalhana | Sanskrit (12th c.) | Historical chronicle of Kashmir |
Medieval Works
Medieval India saw the rise of Bhakti and Sufi poetry, along with Persian chronicles in royal courts. Regional languages flourished, producing devotional and romantic works.
| Work | Author | Language/Period | Significance |
| Padmavat | Malik Muhammad Jayasi | Awadhi (16th c.) | Sufi romance with allegorical meaning |
| Ramcharitmanas | Tulsidas | Awadhi (16th c.) | Popular Bhakti version of Ramayana |
| Sur Sagar | Surdas | Braj (16th c.) | Devotional poems on Krishna |
| Poems of Meera Bai | Meera Bai | Rajasthani/Braj | Bhakti songs of Krishna devotion |
| Guru Granth Sahib | Compiled by Guru Arjan | Punjabi (17th c.) | Sacred scripture of Sikhism |
| Diwan-e-Ghalib | Mirza Ghalib | Urdu (19th c.) | Masterpieces of Urdu ghazal |
| Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Baburnama) | Babur | Chagatai Turkish | Memoirs of the Mughal emperor |
| Akbarnama & Ain-i-Akbari | Abul Fazl | Persian (16th c.) | Court history of Akbar |
| Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri | Jahangir | Persian (17th c.) | Autobiography of Jahangir |
| Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh | Badauni | Persian | Critical history of Akbar’s reign |
Modern Works
During the colonial period, literature became a tool for reform and nationalism. Regional literatures grew, while Indian English writing also gained prominence.
| Work | Author | Language/Period | Significance |
| Anandamath | Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay | Bengali (1882) | Inspired nationalism; “Vande Mataram” |
| Gitanjali | Rabindranath Tagore | Bengali/English (1910s) | Won Nobel Prize in 1913 |
| Godan | Munshi Premchand | Hindi (1936) | Landmark novel on rural society |
| Kesari (editorials) | Bal Gangadhar Tilak | Marathi (1890s) | Political writings during freedom struggle |
| Heer Ranjha | Waris Shah | Punjabi (18th c.) | Classic romantic folk epic |
| Discovery of India | Jawaharlal Nehru | English (1944) | Blend of history and nationalism |
| Geetanjali (translated) | Rabindranath Tagore | English | Made Tagore globally famous |
| Essays & poems | Subramania Bharati | Tamil | Patriotism and social reform |
| Untouchable | Mulk Raj Anand | English (1935) | Exposed caste discrimination |
| The Guide | R.K. Narayan | English (1958) | Modern Indian novel on social themes |
FAQs
Q1. How many languages are included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution?
A1. The Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution currently lists 22 languages, which are recognized for their cultural and historical importance.
Q2. Which is the official language of India as per the Constitution?
A2. The official language of India is Hindi in the Devanagari script, and English is allowed as an associate official language for administrative purposes.
Q3. Name the six classical languages of India.
A3. The six classical languages are Tamil, Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam, and Odia. These were recognized by the Government of India at different times.
Q4. What criteria are used for granting classical language status in India?
A4. A language must have high antiquity, a rich body of ancient literature, an independent literary tradition, and clear distinction from its modern forms.
Q5. Which is considered the oldest Indian literary work?
A5. The Rigveda is considered the oldest Indian literary work, composed around 1500 BCE in Vedic Sanskrit.
Q6. What are the two great epics of Indian literature?
A6. The Ramayana by Valmiki and the Mahabharata by Vyasa are the two great epics, both composed in Sanskrit.
Q7. What is Sangam literature and which language is it written in?
A7. Sangam literature is a collection of early Tamil poetry, composed between 300 BCE and 300 CE. It reflects love, war, ethics, and the social life of ancient Tamil society.
Q8. Who is the author of Arthashastra and what is its subject?
A8. Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta, wrote Arthashastra. It is a comprehensive treatise on politics, economics, law, and administration during the Mauryan period.
Q9. Which language was used for early Buddhist texts?
A9. Early Buddhist texts, including the Tripitaka, were written in Pali, a language closer to the speech of common people.
Q10. Which language was used for Jain religious texts?
A10. Many Jain texts, including the Agamas, were written in Prakrit. Over time, Sanskrit and later regional languages were also used.
Q11. Who wrote Abhigyan Shakuntalam and in which language?
A11. Kalidasa, the famous classical Sanskrit poet and playwright, wrote Abhigyan Shakuntalam, which is regarded as one of the finest works in world drama.
Q12. Which Persian work describes Akbar’s administration in detail?
A12. The Ain-i-Akbari, written by Abul Fazl, describes Akbar’s administration, revenue system, and policies in great detail.
Q13. Which Bhakti poet wrote Ramcharitmanas?
A13. Tulsidas wrote Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi in the 16th century. It retells the Ramayana in a devotional style accessible to the common people.
Q14. Who is regarded as the greatest Urdu poet of the 19th century?
A14. Mirza Ghalib is regarded as the greatest Urdu poet of the 19th century, known for his ghazals that reflect love, philosophy, and human emotions.
Q15. Which Indian writer won the Nobel Prize in Literature and for which work?
A15. Rabindranath Tagore won the Nobel Prize in 1913 for his collection of poems titled Gitanjali, which introduced Indian spiritual and literary traditions to the world.
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